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Cameron Graham

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Cameron Graham

Cameron Graham

Professor of Accounting

cgraham@schulich.yorku.ca

(416) 736-2100 ext. 77926

Office: S346

Personal Website

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  • Area of Expertise

    • Accounting ›
    • Responsible Business ›

    Research Interests

    • Accounting - First Nations
    • Accounting - Globalization
    • Accounting - History
    • Accounting - Organizational
    • Accounting - Pension
    • Accounting - Poverty
    • Accounting - Public Interest
    • Accounting - Sociology
    • Corporate Social Responsibility
    • Emerging Economies
    • Globalization
    • Nonprofit Governance
    • Nonprofit Organizations
    • Organization Performance
    • Performance Measures
    • Public Policy
    • Qualitative Methods
    • Social Innovation
    • Social Organization
    Download CV Google Scholar
  • My research looks at the social role of accounting. I look at accounting in settings that are often ignored by accounting researchers, such as government programs or organizations like the World Bank, particularly settings where poverty is endemic. This has led me to study topics like old age pensions, homelessness, and Canada’s First Nations, using a variety of qualitative research methods to develop rich data sets. The theories I use are drawn from postmodern social and linguistic theorists. I find these theorists offer a vocabulary for redescribing the taken-for-granted, allowing a new perspective on the many forms of accounting in society.

     

     

    Honours

    2013, 2008 Schulich Research Fellowship Award

    2013 Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee Medal

    2012, 2011, 2010, 2009, 2008, 2006, 2005 Merit Award, Schulich School of Business, York University

    2022, 2021, 2020, 2018, 2012, 2009, 2008 Finalist for Teaching Excellence Award, Schulich MBA Program

    2006 Highly Commended Award in the 2006 Emerald/EFMD Outstanding Doctoral Research Award competition, for “Pension Accounting and the Public Interest”

    2005 Highly Commended Award from Emerald Literati Network, for the special issue of Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal, 18(5), co-edited with D. Neu

    2004 Highly Commended Award from Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal for the article “Accounting and the Holocausts of Modernity”, with D. Neu

    2003 Dean’s Research Excellence Award Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of Calgary $3,000

    Recent Publications

    Cameron Graham, Darlene Himick, Pier-Luc Nappert (2024), "The Dissipation of Corporate Accountability: Deaths of the Elderly in For-Profit Care Homes During the Coronavirus Pandemic", Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 99, 102595.

    Keywords
    • Accountability
    • COVID
    • Eldercare
    • Healthcare
    • Investors
    • Law
    • Long-term care
    • Media

    View Paper

    Abstract

    The COVID-19 pandemic has raised serious questions about corporate accountability, exposing how poorly our systems of corporate accountability function under pressure. This paper examines one industry and jurisdiction where this problem is particularly visible, for-profit care homes for the elderly in Ontario, Canada (where the industry is called “long-term care” [LTC]). LTC companies continued to pay bonuses to executives and dividends to investors while COVID-related deaths mounted in their facilities. What does this tell us about how society holds companies accountable for their actions? This paper focuses on two highly institutionalized systems of accountability in the LTC industry in Ontario, namely healthcare governance and financial governance. We examine these two systems in the context of public pressure for regulatory action, pressure that has manifested in mainstream media coverage, social media outrage, and the threat of civil lawsuits. We compare the efficacy of healthcare and financial governance in this industry using a theoretical framework drawn from accountability literature, and explore the possibility of legal consequences for LTC corporations under corporate criminal law. We show how these systems together serve to dissipate corporate accountability through a fragmented, inadequate system of conflicting governance mechanisms, despite making a show of accountability rituals. We argue that these systems work together to divide the moral community in which corporations exist and where meaningful accountability might be possible, facilitating the misrecognition of the “corporate imaginary” as an accountable entity.

    Cameron Graham, Martin E. Persson, Vaughan S. Radcliffe & Mitchell J. Stein (2023), "The State of Ohio’s Auditors, the Enumeration of Population, and the Project of Eugenics", Journal of Business Ethics, 187, 565–587.

    Keywords
    • Auditing
    • Enumeration
    • Eugenics
    • Ohio
    • State Auditors

    View Paper

    Abstract

    In 1856, the State of Ohio began an enumeration of its population to count and identify people with disabilities. This paper examines the ethical role of the accounting profession in this project, which supported the transatlantic eugenics movement and its genocidal attempts to eliminate disabled persons from the population. We use a theoretical approach based on Levinas who argued that the self is generated through engagement with the Other, and that this engagement presupposes a responsibility to and for the Other. We show that successive waves of legislation relied on State and County auditors along with Township clerks and assessors to conduct the mechanics of the enumeration of the population, which focused on the identification, categorization, and counting of the disabled people of the State. We argue that the accounting-based technologies of enumeration and reporting objectify the enumerated persons and deny the auditor’s pre-existing ethical obligation to this new Other. We show how the financial expertise and structures of the State were engaged in the execution of this mandate, which remained in place for over a century and supported a program of institutionalization. We consider the ramifications of this for our understanding of the ethical role of public sector accounting in the United States over this period, which has been under-explored.

    Kate Ruff, Pier-Luc Nappert, Cameron Graham (2023), "Impact Valuations in Social Finance: Emic and Polyvocal Stakeholder Accounts", Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, 36(1), 295-322.

    Keywords
    • Emic
    • Impact Measurement
    • Investing
    • Monetization
    • Polyvocal
    • Ratings
    • Social Impact
    • Valuation

    View Paper

    Abstract

    Purpose

    This paper aims to understand how social finance and impact measurement experts include stakeholders’ voices in valuations of social and environmental impact.

    Design/methodology/approach

    The paper used the content analysis of an online discussion forum where experts discussed impact valuation approaches.

    Findings

    Many experts seek impact valuations that take into account the experiences of those whose lives are most affected. Ideally, these accounts need to be emic to (in the language of) those stakeholders, and polyvocal (representing many different stakeholders’ voices). However, these experts also seek to effect systemic change by encouraging mainstream financial markets to use social and environmental valuations in their decision-making. These experts consider full plurality too complex to be useable by financial markets, so the experts argue in favor of etic valuations (stated in the language of investors), to appeal to mainstream finance, while endeavoring nonetheless to represent multiple stakeholders’ voices. The authors identify two discursive strategies used to resolve this tension: effacing of differences between diverse stakeholders, and overstating the universality of money as a common language.

    Social implications

    The terms emic and polyvocal provide experts with nuanced ways to understand “stakeholder voice.” The authors hope these nuances inspire new insights and strategies and help the community with their goal of bridging to mainstream finance.

    Originality/value

    The paper presents a theoretical framework for describing plurality in impact valuations and examines the challenges of bridging from social finance, which seeks to give voice and representation to those whose lives are most affected, to mainstream finance.

    Peng, S., Bewley, K. and Graham, C. (2021), "On Theoretical Engorgement and the Myth of Fair Value Accounting in China: A Reply", Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal, 34(1), 54-57.

    Keywords
    • Accounting Standards
    • China
    • Fair Value Accounting
    • Social Movement Theory

    View Paper

    Abstract

    Purpose: This article is a reply to “On theoretical engorgement and the myth of fair value accounting in China” Nobes (2019) from the authors of “Adaptability to fair value accounting in an emerging economy: A case study of China’s IRFS convergence” (Peng and Bewley, 2010) and “The Winding Road to Fair Value Accounting in China: A Social Movement Analysis” (Bewley et al., 2018).

    Design/methodology/approach: This article engages directly with the arguments of the criticism.

    Findings: This article argues that the author of the commentary misunderstands the purpose, content and findings of both papers. By providing only a narrowly focused technical analysis of the new Chinese accounting standards, the author fails to see that their qualitative research approach reveals important, complex social and political factors at play in China’s attempts to adopt modern international accounting principles. The commentary expresses a view that accounting is a neutral technology that needs only to be clearly defined and enumerated to be correctly implemented, whereas this research takes a much broader and deeper perspective. The authors seek to understand how China was able to successfully adopt fair value accounting standards in 2006, whereas an earlier attempt to introduce fair value in 1998 had led to abuse of fair value measurements and the eventual repeal of fair value regulations in 2001.

    Practical implications: This article helps clarify the purpose of qualitative accounting research, the role of theory in such research and the usefulness of theory in describing and explaining empirical case facts related to changes in accounting standards, particularly in an international context.

    Originality/value: This article contributes to a better appreciation of qualitative accounting research.

    Grisard, C., Annisette, M. and Graham, C. (2020), "Performative Agency and Incremental Change in a CSR Context", Accounting, Organizations and Society, 82, 1-22.

    Keywords
    • CSR
    • Incremental Changes
    • Performative Agency
    • Subjection

    View Paper

    Abstract

    Based on a two-year participant observation, this paper shows how CSR managers align CSR programs closer to their personal convictions and eventually bring about incremental change. We focus on two CSR managers working on a project to develop a business aimed at serving rural West African consumers and show that while they frame their project in financial terms, they incrementally transform the firm’s representations in accordance with their own vision of CSR. We deploy Butler’s understanding of subjection through performative agency to show that even if CSR managers reproduce the CSR business case discourse to render their actions legitimate and recognizable, this empowers them to exercise a small degree of agency, allowing them to infuse a more inclusive perception of rural low-income populations into the firm’s practices. This paper makes two contributions. First, it shows that the subject can incrementally act to transform the dominant financial discourse governing her subjection to better align it with her desire. Second, we establish that the CSR manager navigates between the traditional duo of CSR actors: the organization and its stakeholders and therefore renders porous the boundary between them both.

    Graham, C. and Grisard, C. (2019), "Rich Man, Poor Man, Beggar Man, Thief: Accounting and the Stigma of Poverty", Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 59, 32-51.

    Keywords
    • Accounting
    • Canada
    • Church
    • Municipal
    • Poverty
    • Stigma

    Open Access Download

    Abstract

    In this paper, we examine the roles of accounting in two institutions dealing with poverty in Toronto during the 1920s. We draw on Georg Simmel’s influential insights on poverty to explore how accounting for poverty alleviation programs helps structure the relationship between rich and poor in society. We argue that accounting serves to bridge the social distance between rich and poor while insulating the rich from the stigma of the poor. This enables the rich to benefit from their efforts to assist the poor, ensuring the legitimation of wealth and the continued existence of poverty. Our analysis of these two historical institutions helps us comprehend some of the roles of accounting in poverty alleviation today.

    Alawattage, C., Graham, C. and Wickramasinghe, D. (2019), "Microaccountability and Biopolitics: Microfinance in a Sri Lankan Village", Accounting, Organizations and Society, 72, 38-60.

    Keywords
    • Biopolitics
    • Microaccountability
    • Microfinance
    • Neoliberalism
    • Sri Lanka

    Open Access Download

    Abstract

    Based on a micro-level study of microfinance, this paper explores how basic accounting technologies and interpersonal accountability are used to make lending to poor village women profitable and low risk. We argue that “microaccountability,” our term for the structuring and formalization of convivial relationships into a capillary system of accountability, must be recognized as a central tool of social governance under neoliberalism. Our field research in Sri Lanka allows us to analyse how microaccountability is employed by for-profit banks to create from poor villagers a legion of bankable individual entrepreneurs, trained to invigilate each other’s savings and credit behaviours. Using the theoretical lens of biopolitics, we show how microaccountability enables the extension of the finance industry into untapped sectors of the global population.

    Bewley, K., Graham, C. and Peng, S. (2018), "The Winding Road to Fair Value Accounting in China: A Social Movement Perspective", Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal, 31(4), 1257-1285.

    Keywords
    • Accounting Standards
    • China
    • Fair Value Accounting
    • Social Movement Theory

    View Paper

    Abstract

    Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine China’s stop-start adoption of fair value accounting (FVA) into its national accounting standards. The paper analyzes how FVA standards promoted by transnational organizations were eventually adopted in China despite its conservative accounting traditions.

    Design/methodology/approach: The study uses archival records and an analytic framework adapted from the studies of social movements to identify the institutional factors that differ between China’ first unsuccessful attempt to adopt FVA and its second successful attempt.

    Findings: Shared interests of elite national and international groups, creation of social infrastructure, marshaling of key resources, and specific actions to frame FVA standards are found to be crucial factors supporting FVA reform in China. Practical implications The study helps advance our understanding of dissemination of international accounting regulations in non-Western societies. The findings can help accounting standard setters to avoid costly failures.

    Originality/value: The study provides a structured analysis of the propagation of global accounting regulations. It exposes the factors in the failure and success of FVA adoption in China.

    Cooper, C., Graham, C. and Himich, D. (2016), "Social Impact Bonds: The Securitization of the Homeless", Accounting, Organizations and Society, 55, 63–82.

    Keywords
    • Biopolitics
    • Foucault
    • Homelessness
    • Neoliberalism
    • Not-for-profit Sector
    • Public Sector
    • Social Impact Bonds
    • Social Programmes

    Open Access Download

    Abstract

    This paper examines the recent phenomenon of social impact bonds (SIBs). Social impact bonds are an attempt to marketize/financialize certain contemporary, intractable “social problems”, such as homelessness and criminal recidivism. SIBs rely on a vast array of accounting technologies including budgets, future cash flows, discounting, performance measurement and auditing. As such, they represent a potentially powerful and problematic use of accounting to enact government policy. This paper contains a case study of the most recent in a series of SIBs, the London Homelessness SIB, focusing on St Mungo’s, a London-based charitable foundation that was one of two service providers (charities) funded by the SIB. The case study is intended to enable a critical reflection on the rationalities that underpin the SIB. For this purpose, the paper draws upon Michel Foucault’s work on biopolitics and neoliberalism. The SIB is thoroughly neoliberal in that it is constructed upon an assumption that there is no such thing as a social problem, only individuals who fail. The SIB transforms all participants in the bond, except perhaps the homeless themselves, into entrepreneurs. The homeless are instead “failed entrepreneurs” who become securitised into the potential future cash flows of investors.

    Crane, A., Graham, C. and Himick, D. (2015), "Financializing Stakeholder Claims", Journal of Management Studies, 52(7), 878–906.

    Keywords
    • Accounting
    • Financialization
    • General Electric
    • Pensions
    • Stakeholders
    • Unions

    Open Access Download

    Abstract

    This paper examines the role of accounting in assigning financial values to stakeholder claims. Stakeholder theorists have called for metrics managers can use to coordinate stakeholder claims. We argue that accounting already serves as the dominant example of such a tool, and that its role in measuring and representing stakeholder claims, and how those representations are used by stakeholders and managers, is not well understood. We suggest that accounting financializes stakeholder claims along three inductivelydeveloped dimensions, namely time, security, and priority. We analyse the case of pension accounting at General Electric to theorize concerning how these dimensions shape stakeholder claims and are used by stakeholders and managers to trade-off claims, demarcate claimants into groups, and reconstruct claims during negotiations.

    Graham, C. (2014), "The Calculation of Age", Organization Studies, 35(11), 1627-1653.

    Keywords
    • Age
    • Aging
    • Calculative Technologies
    • Distributed Agency
    • Governmentality
    • Pensions
    • Retirement

    Open Access Download

    Abstract

    This article explores the role of calculative technologies, such as taxation, accounting and actuarial practices, in constructing ‘age’ in contemporary society. It argues that retirement income programs built on these technologies attempt to construct specific relations not just between the individual and other generations, but between the individual and herself at other stages of life. Retracing the series of Canadian attempts to secure income for the elderly over the course of the 20th century, the paper shows how calculative technologies have been used to connect responsibility for the elderly to the political rationalities of the day. This genealogy allows us to recognize how the present Canadian retirement income system, with its public and private programs addressing different subsets of the population, is contingent on neoliberal rationalities of governance. These demand the alignment of the individual with the goals of the capital markets, and seek to achieve this through a distributed agency that encourages the investment of individual savings in retirement income products. The paper argues that this distributed agency is perpetually incomplete, and that uncertainty is necessary in order that the individual be constantly remade as an investor.

    Graham, C. (2013), "Teaching Accounting as a Language", Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 24, 120-126.

    Keywords
    • Accounting
    • Critical
    • Education
    • Ethics
    • Language
    • Linguistics

    View Paper

    Abstract

    This paper explores how a literary turn in accounting education can provide students with the tools to comprehend financial accounting statements. It argues that a key implication of the literary turn in accounting research is that we must, in our classrooms, take seriously the idea of accounting as a language. By exploring what distinguishes accounting from other languages, not only in its grammar and structure but also in the conditions of production of accounting texts, a literary perspective on accounting can empower students to take a critical perspective on accounting, instead of being passive consumers of accounting signs.

    Graham, C. (2012), "The Subject of Retirement", Foucault Studies, No. 13 (May), 25-39.

    Keywords
    • Accounting
    • Governmentality
    • Neoliberalism
    • Pensions
    • Retirement

    Open Access Download

    Abstract

    This paper examines the ”subject of retirement,” one of the most intimate governmental technologies of our present. It extends Read’s argument regarding Foucault’s views on neoliberalism, by providing explicit examples of the technologies of neoliberal government. Read drew attention to the intensification of governmentality by which neoliberalism has operated, and its pervasion into every aspect of society as the individual-as-citizen is transformed into the individual-as-entrepreneur. By examining the Canadian retirement income system, this paper provides a specific example of accounting as a tool of governmentality, a technology integral to neoliberalism’s regime of truth and its production of subjectivity.

    Courses Taught

    Doctoral Courses:
    Advanced Topics in Accounting Research
    Social and Behavioural Accounting Research
    Empirical Methods in Accounting Research

    MBA Courses:
    Financial Accounting for Managers
    Social Innovation and the Structure of Global Poverty
    Skills for Leadership

    Undergraduate Courses:
    Introductory Financial Accounting

    Grants

    Project Title Role Award Amount Year Awarded Granting Agency
    Project TitleEngine of Inequality? Central Banks, Economic Crisis, and Uneven Development RoleCo-applicant Award Amount$359,643.00 Year Awarded2021 Granting AgencySSHRC Insight Grant
    Project TitleSocial Impact Measurement and Accountability for Results in the Field of Homelessness RolePrincipal Investigator Award Amount$151,030.00 Year Awarded2019 Granting AgencySSHRC Insight Grant
    Project TitleWebsite and Pilot Episode for Podcast Series RolePrincipal Investigator Award Amount$7,000.00 Year Awarded2018 Granting AgencySSHRC Exchange Grant
    Project TitleManaged Alcohol Programs: Evaluating Effectiveness and Policy Implications RoleCo-applicant Award Amount$400,000.00 Year Awarded2016 Granting AgencyCanadian Institutes of Health Research
    Project Title Role Award Amount$12,000.00 Year Awarded2015 Granting AgencyCPA Schulich Alliance Research Grant
    Project Title Role Award Amount$90,000.00 Year Awarded2015 Granting AgencySchulich Start-up Grant
    Project Title Role Award Amount$10,360.00 Year Awarded2014 Granting AgencyCMA - Research Grant
    Project TitleA Comparative Study of Accounting for Homelessness Programs in Western Countries RolePrincipal Investigator Award Amount$9,000.00 Year Awarded2012 Granting AgencyCMA - Research Grant
    Project TitleInvestigation of Data Availability and Personnel Accessibility for Federal Retirement Income Programs RolePrincipal Investigator Award Amount$37,160.00 Year Awarded2008 Granting AgencySocial Sciences and Humanities Research Council - Research Development Initiative - Management Business and Finance
    Project Title RolePrincipal Investigator Award Amount$2,500.00 Year Awarded2013, 2008 Granting AgencySchulich School of Business - Schulich Research Fellowship
    Project Title RolePrincipal Investigator Award Amount$90,000.00 Year Awarded2005-2008 Granting AgencySchulich School of Business, York University - Minor Research Grant
    Project Title RolePrincipal Investigator Award Amount$1,000.00 Year Awarded2004 Granting AgencyFaculty of Graduate Studies, University of Calgary - Graduate Research Scholarship
    Project Title RolePrincipal Investigator Award Amount$2,050.00 Year Awarded2004 Granting AgencyFaculty of Graduate Studies, University of Calgary - Graduate Research Scholarship
    Project Title RolePrincipal Investigator Award Amount$38,000.00 Year Awarded2003-2005 Granting AgencySocial Sciences and Humanities Research Council - SSHRC Doctoral Fellowship
    Project Title RolePrincipal Investigator Award Amount$2,000.00 Year Awarded2003 Granting AgencyFaculty of Graduate Studies, University of Calgary - Graduate Research Scholarship
    Project Title RolePrincipal Investigator Award Amount$58,950.00 Year Awarded2001-2005 Granting AgencyDoctoral Program, Faculty of Management, University of Calgary - Graduate Assistantship (Research and Teaching)
    Project Title RolePrincipal Investigator Award Amount$10,000.00 Year Awarded2001 Granting AgencyDoctoral Program, Faculty of Management, University of Calgary - Robert A. Willson Doctoral Management Scholarship
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